Centuries according to John Martin

• Prior to 11th century: Fall of Rome, barbarian invasions - little emphasis on city or commerce

• 11th century: revival of commerce and urban life

• 12th century: increasing growth of population and significant clusters of towns and cities in norther Italy and Low Countries; intellectual and cultural growth - monastic and cathedral schools
  

• 13th century: intellectual and cultural growth - universities

• 14th century: marked shift in culture; naturalism, humanlike - Giotto, Petrarch; born out of crisis - bubonic and pneumatic plague (Black Death)
  

• 15th century: artistic and intellectual practices become increasingly fashionable in Italy

• 16th century: shift of political power away from Italy to Spain, France and England